The origins of the people known as the “Fulani”, is somewhat obscure but at the same time can be pieced together through the plethora of information left through the vestiges of cultural myths and the written history that the people themselves produced. The Fulani people are known by many names, among them: Pulaar, Peul, Fulbe, Takrur etc. They originate from the Sahel region of West Africa, but are spread all across North and West Africa.  These people can be found from Cape Verde to the West to Ethiopia to the East, the equatorial area of Illorin to the south and to the edge of the Sahara to the north. They even have autonomous rule as far east as modern day Sudan.

The Fulani people are very important in the history of Africa as they were the progenitors of a number of African states stretching from the Sahel region all the way to modern day Nigeria. This paper will discuss the mythic and palpable origins of the Fulani people and the basics and details of their societal structure. This paper will also discuss the political system, structure and organization of the Fulani states.

Although most of the Fulani states came into existence in the 19th century, the structure and identity of the states date back earlier. The name “Fulani” actually comes from the Arabic term “Fulan” which literally means “so and so”. This name was probably applied to them by the Arab merchants who frequented the area. As stated earlier, they referred to themselves as “Pulaar.” Umar al-Naqar states in his article “Takruur: the History of a name” that the Fulani hail from the Futa Toro region of West Africa. (al-Naqar, 3).

The Fulani people are a pastoralist people who follow their herds but still reside mostly in towns and villages. They do have a nomadic strand at the same time; this nomadic tendency helped or explained the reason why they are spread out over West Africa. They are the largest nomadic group of people on earth. They spread far and wide and very rapidly due to their superb cavalry.  They never penetrated too far to the south though because their horses would succumb to the diseases of that latitude.  This is also explains the pattern of Fulani dispersion, because they specialize in herding cattle. One can trace their movement by following the areas suitable for cattle pasteurization. Jean Suet-Canale in his “The Social and Historical Significance of the Puel Hegemonies in the Seventeenth Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries” expounds that the Sahel region from whence they originate is ideal for this situation. (Suet-Canale, 31) It also contributed to their spreading of Islam vis-a vis the scholarly clan of the Fulani known as the ‘Turube’.

Central to any ethnic group is the group’s history, which is integral to the individual, collective and psychological make-up of the group. A common history promotes what Ibn Khaldun calls “Group Feeling” which is integral for any ethnic group. The mythical origins of the Fulani, which serve as the ideological glue to the Fulani will now be discussed.

Cultural-Mythical Origins of the Fulani

According to the Fulani people they have a common ancestor which came from the East and became the progenitor of their people. This theme is common in many African people’s folk tales about their respective origins. The Fulani elite have developed an elaborate ethos and story about their origins. It is more detailed in respect to other African people, mainly because they are a literate people with a rich history of scholarship.
The Prime Minister of the Sokoto state, Waziri Junayd ibn Muhammad al-Bukhari said in his history entitled “Dabt – Multaqataat” in regards to the origins of the Fulani: “ It is said that the origin of the Turdbe is from the Jews, it is said that they are from the Christians. It is said that they are from the Bambara who came and settled between the Nile and Euphrates rivers. It is said that they are from a tribe of the Children of Israel who relocated from the region of Sinai to the lands of Tuur. It is for this reason they are called Turdbe. Tuur is a land in the western part of Yemen. The soundest opinion is that they are from Ruum ibn Esau Ibn Ishaq Ibn Ibrahim. They settled between the lands of the two seas.”(al-Bukhari, 3)

Junayd also claims that the Fulani are descended from the companion of Prophet Muhammad by the name of Uqba bin Nafi, who led an army across North African in 675 A.D. He was said to have sired four children with the daughter of a local King named Bajjimanga, their names were: Da’atu, Naasa, Way and Wa’araba. (al-Bukhari, 40). Some contemporary scholars take umbrage these claims but John Willis writes in his “Studies in West African History” that: “ this need not be taken as a fatal objection to their claims of Arab ancestry.”(Willis, 23) This is because the truth usually lies somewhere in between two extremes. There seems to be more evidence that the Fulani may have amalgamated with some Arab merchants who visited the region early on. The King of Takrur, War Jabi was said to have converted to Islam in the 1030’s. This is instrumental because Islam is fundamental or integral to Fulani identity.

In the region of Takrur, the Fulani along with the Takrur people were known as Halpulaar. This conversion was important because it helped create the Fulani identity. In actuality this was the genesis of the Fulani, as they mixed with and made alliances with the Berber tribes and assisted with the Murabitun conquest of Ghana in 1075 A.D. The story of the emigration from the east is more than likely the personalizing or mytholizing of the process of the people of Takrur amalgamating and mixing with the Muslim Berbers and creating another identity. This pattern of storytelling can be seen in various parts of Africa to explain emigration patterns and domination of one ethnic group over another. The Fulani utilized their knowledge of previous scriptures through their introduction to Islam and claimed ancestry to the “People of Book”, Jews and Christians as a symbolization of religious authority. This lineage- based authority was very important as the Fulani conquered other peoples and brought them into the fold of Islam. This lineage-base system was utilized internally also as a sort of religious caste system evolved within the Fulani.

As discussed earlier the Fulani had sub-groups within them. One of these groups and one of the most important was the ‘Turudbe” who were a clerical/scholar class who were very influential within the Fulani. As stated earlier, the Fulani identity is a Muslim identity so knowledge of the precepts and details of the religion was paramount for leadership. The Turudbe leadership was passed from son to son, and certain clerical positions were reserved for members of certain families. One example of this is the “Fudeye” clan of the Fulani, who established the Sokoto Caliphate in Northern Nigeria in the 19th century ( est. 1809).

This and later Fulani states were theocracies were the clerics had major influence over the affairs of the state. The system was held in place due to the endogamous nature of the Fulani way of life. There was also a female counterpart to the ‘Turdbe’ called the’ Yamm Ture’, whose job it was to educate the women of the Fulani. The Fulani were a literate people who were literate in at least two languages. Arabic was the lingua de Franca of the scholar class and law text as well as religious scriptures was kept mostly in Arabic. The Fulani had made their own language a literary language but using the Arabic characters. In places such as Northern Nigeria amongst the Hausa, they tended to write in Hausa, again with the Arabic characters as the medium. There is a plethora of literature documenting the Fulani of northern Nigerian being literate in Hausa. Their poetry which they composed tended to be in Fulani or Hausa in the Hausa dominated areas and not Arabic.

Traditional Power Structure

There were other levels of organization besides scholarship within the Fulani. The Fulani were a pastoralist people so acquiring cattle was a way of gaining influence among the Fulani. Wealth was accrued through the acquisition of cattle. The society itself worked along democratic lines. Group decisions were the standard in decisions affecting the entire community. There wasn’t an all powerful ruler whose word was absolute. There was a due process so to speak to resolve criminal offenses and even an appellate system called “Kullayni” which was utilized more by the Fulani of Northern Nigeria.

Offenses against persons and the group as a whole were mediating through council of elders for the purpose. In his study of the Fulani entitled “ The Fulani of Northern Nigeria”,  F.W. de St Croix points out that in these cases, except in the issue of slaves, imprisonment didn’t take place. This is because the Fulani believed that if imprisoned, one’s fortune would dissipate forever.(St Croix , 17)

This did not exclude them from enslaving others though. Within the Fulani, one way of disciplining someone would be to confiscate the offender’s cattle, the amount depending on the severity of the offense. These traditional Fulani “courts” were said to be in existence up until about 20 years ago. In regards to the “chiefs”( ardo) of the group, the more important ones tended to not live nomadic life, they were stationary in the towns and villages. They usually had their closest kin live near to them as well as a small amount of cattle. The important “chiefs” tended to not move around with large amounts of cattle. The larger portion of his cattle would be watched over by members of the family designated to do such a task.

This arrangement had a particular meaning with the society, being a “chief” did not mean that one had major influence on the affairs of the Fulani as a whole. There were many chiefs and unlike the ‘Turudbe’ system being a chief was based more on a monetary basis and was more open to inclusion then the former. If a man acquired a vast amount of cattle then he could obtain a title which could be inherited by a son or brother. Outside of his immediate clan the chief really had no influence.  The clan would collect revenues on behalf of the chief if he had the prowess, it was more charismatic based then standard. If one managed to amass a following then they would acquire a title in vicinity other than where the main chief resided.

St Croix points out that in this case that the subordinate chief would pay homage to the greater chief, even if the cows of the greater chief was leaner of fewer than that of the subordinate chief. A further nuance to this set-up is the fact that some Fulani groups didn’t have a chief at all. This usually happened when one group was far in proximity from another then they would attach themselves to a group with whom they had some affiliations with. This “affiliation” could stem from sharing a progenitor of a lineage some generations before.

In conclusion, the Fulani people came about as the result of a fusion with the Berbers of Mauritania and the indigenous people of the Senegambia, Sahel region. Islam is central to their identity and they have been major propagators of the faith throughout Africa. The Fulani people are a pastoralist people who a sort of confederation had based on their common beliefs. Their societal and governmental structure was both a local council of elders and theocratic alliance and order was kept in line through the taxing of cattle.

Cattle were used as currency and as a way to punish offenders. Titles could be obtained through the accumulation of cattle. In addition to this system, the Fulani also had a scholar class of clerics who actually wielded a considerable amount of influence. This scholar class went on to be the founders of many states: Tukular(Shaykh Umar Futi), Sokoto, Ahmadullahi(Cameroon) in the 19th century throughout Africa. The Fulani states, although variant in their allegiances and make ups were established on the combination of local-traditional, council type governing system as well as a codified, legal state structure.